UNIT I - Cropping systems: definition, indices and its importance; physical resources, soil and water management in cropping systems; assessment of land use

 UNIT I 

Cropping systems: definition, indices and its importance; physical resources, soil and water management in cropping systems; assessment of land use 

What is a System? 

A system is a group of interacting components, operating together for a common purpose, capable of reacting as a whole to external stimuli: it is unaffected directly by its own outputs and has a specified boundary based on the inclusion of all significant feedbacks. For example, the human body is a system-it has a boundary (e.g., the skin) enclosing a number of components (heart, lungs) that interact (the heart pumps blood to the lungs) for a common purpose (to maintain and operate the living body).

 Collection of unrelated items does not constitute a system. A bag of marbles is not a system: if a marble is added or subtracted, a bag of marbles remains and may be almost completely unaffected by the change. The marbles only behave as a whole if the whole bag is influenced, for example by dropping it, but if it bursts the constituent parts go their own ways. It is the properties of the system that chiefly matter and they may be summarized in the phrase ‘behavior as a whole in response to stimuli to any part’. 

Ecosystem: 

Any collection of organisms that interact or have the potential to interact along with the physical environment in which they live, form an ecological system or ecosystem. Ecosystems are not static entities they are dynamic systems with characteristic pattern of energy flow, nutrient cycling and structural change.

Agro-ecosystem: 

Agro-ecosystems are ecological systems modified by human beings to produce food, fibre or other agricultural products. Like the ecological systems they replace, agro-ecosystems are structurally and dynamically complex. But their complexity arises from the interaction between socioeconomic and ecological processes. 

Crop system: 

An arrangement of crop populations that transform solar energy, nutrients, water and other inputs into useful biomass ie. food, feed, fuel and fibre. Crop system comprised of soils, crop, weed, pathogen and insect subsystems. The crop can be of different species and variety, but they only constitute one crop system if they are managed as a single unit. The crop system is a subsystem of cropping system. For example, in the maize crop system, maize is the dominant crop which is grown in association with other crops. 

Cropping Systems: 

Cropping systems, an important component of a farming system, represents a cropping pattern used on a farm and their interaction with farm resources, other farm enterprises and available technology, which determine their make up.

 It is defined, as the order in which the crops are cultivated on a piece of land over a fixed period or cropping system is the way in which different crops are grown. In the cropping systems, sometimes a number of crops are grown together or they are grown separately at short intervals in the same field.

Cropping Pattern: 

It is the pattern of crops for a given piece of land or cropping pattern means the proportion of area under various crops at a point of time in a unit area or it indicated the yearly sequence and spatial arrangements of crops and follows in an area. 

Difference between cropping pattern and cropping system 

	Cropping Pattern	Cropping System
1	Crop rotation practiced by a majority of farmers in a given area or locality.	Cropping pattern and its management to derive benefits from a given resource base under specific environmental conditions.
2	Type and management of crops in time and space.	The cropping patterns used on a farm and their interaction with farm resources, other farm enterprises, and available technology which determine their makeup.
3	Yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops or crops and fallow on a given area.	The proportion of area under various crops at a point of time in a unit area. Pattern of crops taken up for a given piece of land, or order in which crops are cultivated on a piece of land over a fixed period, associated with soil, management practices such as tillage, manuring, and irrigation.

Land resources being limited emphasis have to be placed for increasing production from unit area of land in a year. 

Cropping systems based on climate, soil and water availability have to be evolved for realizing the potential production levels through efficient use of available resources. The cropping system should provide enough food for the family, fodder for cattle and generate sufficient cash income for domestic and cultivation expenses. This objective could be achieved by adopting intensive cropping. Methods of intensive cropping include multiple cropping and intercropping. Intensive cropping may pose some practical difficulties such as shorter turn- around time lapse for land preparation before the succeeding crop and labour shortage at peak agricultural activities. These problems can be overcome by making modification in the cropping techniques. Alteration in crop geometry may help to accommodate intercrops without losing the base crop production. 

Efficient Cropping Systems: 

Efficient cropping systems for a particular farm depend on farm resources, farm enterprises and farm technology because farm is an organized economical unit. The farm resources include land, labour, water, capital and infrastructure. When land is limited intensive cropping is adapted to fully utilize available water and labour. When sufficient and cheap labour is available, vegetable crops are also included in the cropping systems as they require more labour. Capital intensive crop like sugarcane, banana, turmeric etc. find a space in the cropping system when capital is not a constraint. In low rainfall regions (750 mm/annum) mono cropping is followed and when rainfall is more than 750 mm, intercropping is practiced. With sufficient irrigation water, triple and quadruple cropping is adopted. When other climatic factors are not limiting farm enterprise like daring, poultry etc. also influence the type of cropping system. When the farm enterprises include dairy, cropping system should contain fodder crops. Components change in cropping system also takes place with the developments of technology. The feasibility of growing for crop sequences in Genetic alluvial plains inputs to multiple cropping. 

Importance of systems approach 

In system approach all the components and activities are linked, they affect each other. It is not sensible to look at one component by itself without recognizing that what it does and what happens to it will affect other parts of the system. For example consider what happens when you stub your toe: the whole body may react and different parts may respond differently. Eyes may water, the voice may make appropriate sounds, the pulse rate may increase and hands may try to rub the damaged toe. It would be very rash to alter any component of a system without regard to the consequences and reactions elsewhere. You cannot, for example, improve a car (system) by doing research on one wheel and then making it rather bigger than the rest. Or increase the power and size of the engine without regard to the ability of the chassis to support it. 

These things are common sense in such familiar contexts- they also apply to biological and agricultural systems. In agriculture, management practices were usually developed for individual crop. However, farmers are cultivating different crops in different seasons based on their adaptability to a particular season, domestic needs and profitability. Therefore, production technology or management practices should be developed in view all the crops grown in a year or more than one year if any sequence or rotation extends beyond one year. Such a package of management practices for all crops leads to efficient use of costly inputs, besides reduction in production cost. For instance, residual effect of manures and fertilizers applied and nitrogen fixed can considerably bring down the production cost if all the crops are considered than individual crops. In this context, cropping system approach is gaining importance. 

Physical resources, soil and water management in cropping systems 

The objective of any cropping system is efficient utilization of all resources viz. land, water and solar radiation, maintaining stability in production and obtaining higher net returns. The efficiency is measured by the quantity of produce obtained per unit resource used in a given time. The objective of traditional agriculture was to increase the production by two means: 

a. by increasing area under cultivation 

b. by increasing the productivity per unit area of the crop. 

But two more dimensions are added to modern agriculture

a. to increase the production per unit time. 

b. to increase the production per unit space. 

In the traditional cropping systems, mixtures and rotations were developed by the farmers over years of experience by trial and error to suit specific ecological and sociological conditions to attain yield stability, whereas modern scientific cropping has three pillars, viz. 

(i) Genotype

(ii) Geometry of planting

(iii) management practices.

1. Genotype means genetic makeup of seed. 

2. Geometry of planting means: 

a. Shape of planting pattern on the land surface. 

b. Space of the area for the individual plant. Geometry of planting may be circular, rectangular, square type or cubical. It is indirectly related to plant population. Cubical pattern of planting has maximum plant population. Plant population may be defined as 

(i) size of area available to the individual plant, 

(ii) number of plants per unit area. 

3. Management practices include all the practices of crop production. For the cropping system, management includes 

a. Type and arrangement of crops in time and space i.e. cropping pattern. 

b. Choice of variety. 

c. Method of stand establishment. 

d. Pest management and harvest. 

Agronomic considerations for different cropping system are different due to inclusion of more than one crop as in intercropping or sequence cropping system. Thus, principles involved in management of intercropping system and sequence system are different. 

Management of Intercropping Systems 

In intercropping system crops are grown simultaneously. Management practices aim to provide favorable environment to all the components, exploit favorable interaction among the component crops and minimize competition among the components. 

a. Seedbed Preparation: 

The objective of land preparation is to establish an ideal zone for the seedling that minimizes the stress. Potential stress condition include inadequate or excess moisture, unfavorable temperature for a given species, soil crusting, weeds, residue of preceding crop and insect or pathogen attack. Important of seedbed is the same in both conventional (monoculture) and in multiple cropping. Seedbed preparation depends on the crop. Deep rooted crops responds to deep ploughing while for most of cereal shallow tillage is sufficient. The crops with small seed require fine seedbed, cotton, and maize, planted on ridges, certain crops on flat seedbed. Since more than one crop is planted in intercropping, the seedbed is generally prepared as per the needs of base crop. Sugarcane planted in furrow and intercrop sown on ridges. In Groundnut + red gram intercropping system, flat seedbed is prepared for sowing crops. However, ICRISAT is recommending broad bed and furrow for black soils. In rice + maize intercropping system, ridges and trenches are formed. Maize is planted on ridges and rice in trenches. 

b. Varieties: 

The varieties of component crop in intercropping system should be less competitive with the base crop and peak nutrient demand period should be different from the base crop. Minimum difference between the maturity periods of two components should be of 30 days. Hybrids varieties of sorghum like CSH - 6, CSH - 9 are suitable for intercropping with long duration variety of red gram like C11 and LRG 30 because of wider gap between maturity periods. The varieties selected for intercrop should have thin leaves, tolerant to shading and less branching. If the base crop is shorter than intercrop, the intercrop should be compact with erect branching and its early growth should be slow. The characteristics of the base crop should be as in sole crop. 

c. Sowing: 

Practices of sowing are slightly altered to accommodate inter - crop in such a way that it cause less competition to the base crop. Widening inter row spacing of cereal component to accommodate more rows of component legume crop improves legume yield and efficiency of the intercrop system. Sowing of base crop is done either as paired row, paired – wider row or skip row of base crop are brought close by reducing inter row spacing. The spacing between two pairs of rows is increased to accommodate the inter crop. Such row arrangement of base crops within the rows improves the amount of light transmitted to the lower component crop, which can enhance legume yield in cereal + legume intercropping system. 

                                  For example – the normal row spacing in Rainfed cultivation is 30 cm. The row spacing is reduced to 20 cm between paired rows and 50 cm spacing in two pairs. The spacing in paired row planting designed as 20/50 cm indicates that the spacing between two rows in pairs is 20 cm and among the pairs 50 cm. Similarly, pearl millet is planted with row spacing 30/60 cm in paired row planting. These changes in crop geometry do not alter the yield of base crop, but intercrops are benefited to some extent. When alternating pairs of sorghum rows 90 cm with two rows of an associated legume, Singh (1972) found that LER was greater compared at 60 cm between rows with two rows of the legume in between. Planting in fixed ratio of intercrop is most common. The intercropping system of groundnut + red gram is either in 5:1 or 7:1 ratio and sorghum + red gram in 2:1 ratio. In these cases the normal three tined or four tined seed drill can be used without any modification. The hole(s) pertaining to intercrop row in the hopper is(are) closed with a piece of cloth in that row, intercrop is sown with alkali or kera. For higher yields, base crop population is maintained at its sole crop population and intercrop population is kept at 80 percent of its sole crop population. Relative sowing time of component crop is important management variable manipulated in cereal + legume intercropping system but has not been extensively studied. Sowing may be staggered to increase the temporal difference, which might result in higher yield advantage (Singh et al.1981). 

d. Fertilizer Application: 

The nutrient uptake is generally more in intercropping system compared to pure crops. When the legume is associated with a cereal crop in intercropping system, legume supplement a portion of nitrogen required of cereal crop; the amount may be of 20 kg/ha by legumes. Application of higher dose of nitrogen to the cereal + legume intercropping system not only reduce the nitrogen fixation capacity of legumes, but also growth of the legume is suppressed by aggressive fast growth of cereals. Cereal + legume intercropping, therefore is mainly advantageous under low fertilizer application. Considering all the factors, it is suggested that the nitrogen dose recommended for base crop as pure crop is sufficient for intercropping system with cereal + legume or legume + legume. With regards to phosphorus and potassium, one eighth to one fourth of the recommended dose of intercrop is also added in addition to recommended dose of base crops to meet the extra demand. Basal dose of nitrogen is applied to rows of both components in cereal + legume inter crop. Top dressing of nitrogen is done only in cereal rows. P & K are applied as basal dose to both crops. 

e. Water Requirement: 

The technique of water management is the same for sole cropping and intercropping or sequential cropping. However, the presence of an additional crop may have an important effect on evapo - transpiration. With proper water management, it is possible to grow two crops where normally only one crop is raised under rain fed condition. Intercropping system is generally recommended for rain fed situations to get the stable yields. The total water requirement of intercrop does not increase much compared to sole cropping. At ICRISAT, the water requirement of sole sorghum and intercropping with red gram was almost similar (584 and 585 mm, respectively). However in a more competitive crop like onion as intercropped in groundnut increase the total water requirement by about 50 mm. The total water used in intercropping system is almost same as in sole crops, but yields are increased. Thus water use efficiency of intercropping is higher than sole crops. 

                                                                                          Scheduling of water: If one of the crop is irrigated based on its requirement, the other crop may suffer due to excess water stress, sometimes leading to total failure of crop. In cotton + black gram intercropping system, cotton is irrigated once in 15-20 days. The intercrop black gram is often affected by excess water and gives poor yield. In such situations, skip furrow method of irrigation is advocated. Scheduling irrigation at IW/CPE ratio of 0.60 to 0.80 or irrigation at one bar soil moisture tension is suitable for most of the systems. 

f. Weed Management: 

Generally it is believed that intensive cropping reduces weed problems. Weed infestation depends on the crop, plant density and cultural operation done. Weed problems is less in intercropping system compared to the sole crops. 

This is due to complete crop cover because of high plant density in intercropping which cause severe competition with weeds and reduce weed growth. The weed suppressing ability of intercrop is dependent upon the component crops selected, genotype used, plant density adopted, proportion of component crops, their spatial arrangement and fertility moisture status of the soil. Experiment carried out at ICRISAT, Hyderabad, indicated that there was 50 - 75 % reduction in weed infestation by intercropping. Pigeon pea + sorghum intercropping system, which is extensively practiced in Karnataka, M.S and A.P is known to reduce weed intensity. The higher plant population and complete covering of the soil earlier in intercropping system reduce weed infestation. In late maturing crops that are planted in wide rows, presence of early maturing crops helps to cover the maturing crops that are planted at wide rows. Presence of early maturing crops helps to cover the vacant inter-row space and keeps weed under check. Quick growing noncompetitive, compact legumes like green gram and black gram act as another crop due to their good canopy coverage. In certain situations, intercrops are used as biological agents to control weeds. Black gram, green gram, cow pea in sorghum and cowpea in banana reduce weed population. One hand weeding can be avoided by this method. However, in some intercropping systems like maize + groundnut, rice + tapioca, maize + tapioca, weed problem is similar to their sole crops. The growth habit of genotype used in intercropping has a great influence on weed growth. 

Weed infestation in intercropping is influenced by early growth and competitive additives of the component crops. If one or both the component crops are vigorous and cover the land area rapidly, weed infestation is greatly reduced. Early crop canopy to cover the soil is more important than rapid increase in plant height. It is well known that, different species of weeds are associated with different crops, but weeds present in sole crops are different than those present in intercropping system. At Hyderabad, in pearl millet as sole crop mixed weed flora was observed as Celosia, Digitaria and Cupreous in sole crop of groundnut. In pearl millet + groundnut intercropping system type of weeds changes with proportion of component crops. As more rows of groundnut are introduced in place of pearl millet of rows, there is a striking increase in both numbers and biomass of the tall and competitive Celosia, especially in groundnut rows. Weed problem is less; weed control is necessary in intercropping system. But labour required for weeding is less; second weeding is not necessary because of crop coverage and limited weed growth. 

Normally two hand weeding are required, but it may restrict to one hand weeding under intercropping in sorghum + red gram or sorghum + cowpea. Just one weeding is sufficient to get high yield as in weed- free check. The critical period of weed free condition may be extended a little longer in intercropping than in sole cropping. This is because the critical growth stages of the component crops vary temporally in intercropping. For example, critical weed free period has to be extended to first 7 weeks in sorghum + red gram intercropping while sole sorghum crop requires only 2- 4 weeks weed free period. 

Chemical weed control is difficult in intercropping system because the herbicide may be selective to one crop but non- selective to another. Atrazine control weeds in sole sorghum, but it is not suitable for sorghum + red gram intercropping system, as it is toxic to red gram. Herbicides suitable for intercropping systems as- 

* Maize + green gram & Maize + cowpea. Butachlor (pre - emergence) (Machete) 

* Sorghum + pulse – fluchloralin (PPI) (Basalin) or Alachlor (pre - emergence) (Lasso) 

* Sorghum + red gram – prometryne (pre- emergence) 

* Sugarcane + groundnut – nitrofen (pre-emergence) (TOK E -25). 

g. Pest and Disease in Intercropping System: 

Pest and diseases are believed to be less in intercropping system due to crop diversity than sole crops. Some plant combination may enhance soil fungicide and antibiotics through indirect effects on soil organic matter content. The spread of the diseases is altered by the presence of different crops. Little leaf of Brinjal is less when Brinjal is sheltered by maize or sorghum, as the insect- carrying virus first attacks maize or sorghum; virus infestation is less on Brinjal. Non – host plant in mixtures may emit chemicals or odor that affects the pests, thereby protecting host plants. The concept of crop diversification for the management of nematode population has been applied mainly in the form of decoy and trap crops. Decoy crops are non-host crops, which are planted to make nematode waste their infection potential. This is affected by activating larva of nematode in the absence of hosts by the decoy crops. 

Crop	Nematode	Decoy Crops
Brinjal	Meloidogyne incognita	Sesamum orientale
Tomato	Meloidogyne pratylenchus alleni	Caster, Groundnut
Soybean	Pratylenchus sp	Crotalarias spectabills

Trap crops are host crops sown to attract nematode but destined to be harvested or destroyed before the nematode manage to hatch. This is advocated for cyst nematode. The technique involves is sowing in pineapple plantations; tomatoes are planted and ploughed in to reduce root knot nematodes. There is also evidence that, some plants adversely affect nematode population through toxic action. Marigold reduces the population of Pratylenchus species.

Management of Sequential Cropping System 

Unlike intercropping, crops are grown one after another in sequential cropping and hence, management practices are different. 

a. Seedbed Preparation: 

Suitable seedbed can be prepared as per crops. Puddling for rice, ridges and furrows for vegetables, maize and cotton and flat seedbed for several other crops. However, two problems are encountered in seedbed preparation in sequential cropping system. 

1) The time available for seedbed preparation is less in high intensity cropping system. Frequent rain interference the land preparation. 

2) Due to prevent crop field may be in condition. For example field preparation after rice is difficult, it is mainly because soil structure is destroyed during puddling. 

The turn – around time, the time between harvesting to sowing of next crop is more if rice is the preceding crop. To avoid this problem minimum tillage or zero tillage is adopted. It is the common practices to sow pulse crop just before or immediately after harvesting rice crop. In rice- wheat system the stubbles are killed by spraying paraquat and wheat is sown in plough furrows between stubble of rice. 

In irrigated agriculture the time available for tillage between two successive crops is minimal leading to minimum tillage. Minimum tillage is applicable for soils with, 

1. A course texture surface soil, 

2. Good drainage 

3. High biological activity of soil fauna. 

4. An adequate quantity of soil residue mulch and 

5. Favourable initial soil moisture and friable soil consistency over a wide range of soil moisture. 

It is not possible to practice zero or minimum tillage in all sequence cropping systems. If sunflower is the preceding crop, ploughing is essential to oxidize the allelo-chemicals of sunflower. The stubbles of pearl millet and sorghum, which contain high C:N ratio immobilizes nitrogen. It is therefore, necessary to remove them. Stubble also interfere the field operations. 

In rice-rice-green gram system firstly summer ploughing is done. Later in the rainy season when water is available, puddling is done and first crop is sown. Second rice crop is sown after minimum tillage. Green gram is sown as a relay crop in the second rice crop. In Cotton-Sorghum-finger millet cropping system in garden lands, thorough field preparation is done and field is laid out into check basins to transplant finger millet. In next season, cotton is planted among the stubbles of finger millet without field preparation. Weeds are controlled by inter-cultivation operation in Nigeria. No till planting of sorghum into residues of the previous crop maintained the seed at 10 oC lower temperature in the seeding zone when it reaches 41oC. 

b. Varieties: 

Short duration of crops are selected to fit well in the multiple cropping systems. Photoinsensitive varieties are essential for successful sequence cropping system. Most of the high yielding varieties. 

c. Sowing: 

Sowing is not a problem as there is sufficient time for seedbed preparation. If seedbed is not prepared well, the establishment of crop is difficult. For example- cotton establishment is difficult in black soil after rice. Due to hard pans in the shallow layer, root penetration is difficult. If field is allowed to dry for land preparation, sowing is delayed by one month. Hence seedlings are raised either on twisted paddy straw or leaf cups before harvesting of rice crop. After harvesting a cow bar hole is made up to 30 cm. It is partly filled with sand and soil mixture and cotton seedlings are planted. The establishment of pulse crop is difficult after rice. Broadcasting of seeds in standing rice crop results in uneven germination Therefore, high seed rate is necessary. Crops planted in stubbles are subject to competition from regenerated stubbles. 

It can be overcome by spraying, preparation or digging of stubbles. Delay in sowing is common problems in intensive cropping systems. To reduce yields loss due to transpiration of overage seedlings, higher level of nitrogen is applied to induce tillering. In rice – wheat system, wheat yields are reduced considerably when the sowing of wheat is delayed beyond November. In such situation, planting of 40 to 50 days old seedlings of wheat is done. FYM is broadcasted over the field to maintain higher soil temperature during December. 

d. Soil fertility management: 

Soil fertility management become more complex in intensive cropping because of residual effect of nutrients applied to the previous crops, possible effect of legume in the system, complementary and competitive interaction from the component crops and influence of crop residues left in the soil. The modern or chemical agriculture, which includes higher cropping intensity involving improved varieties, heavier inputs of fertilizer and water, increasing yields and accelerated removal of plant nutrients has added newer dimensions to the fertility management. 

Fertilizer practices for sequence cropping: Based on long term fertility experiments conducted in various parts of India, the following broad conclusions are: 

• System productivity increased with the application of P along with N, and further increased with use of N, P and K. Application of N at recommended dose is advocated to each of the crop in cropping system. 

• Phosphorus management in cropping system needs careful adjustment of P fertilizer dose taking into the account type of fertilizer, soil characteristics and their yield level, extent of P removal and growing environment. In cropping system – involving wheat, fertilizer P dose to kharif crop can be reduced if preceding wheat has received P in adequate amounts. 

• Removal of K in proportion to N is very high in cropping systems particularly those involving cereal and fodder crops. It is important to apply K fertilizer at recommended dose to maintain soil fertility. In K rich soils of Coimbatore, K application at 50% recommended dose to each crops in the sequence rice-rice-soybean was optimum. 

• Among the secondary nutrients, sulphur application is benefited particularly to sesamum - mustard, soybean - safflower and groundnut - mustard cropping sequence (Tondon, 1991). 

• Among micronutrients, Zn deficiency is the most common as nearly 50% soils of intensive cultivated areas suffers from Zn deficiency. Rainy season crops like rice, maize and sorghum respond more to applied Zn than winter crops like wheat and chickpea. Under long term experiments at Ludhiana (Punjab), significant decline in productivity of maize was recorded after 10 to 12 years’ annual cycles, due to fall in Zn status. Use of organics prevents Zn deficiency in intensive cropping system under normal soils.

Cropping System and Integrated Nutrient Management (INM): 

The concept of integrated nutrients management (INM) involves use of various inorganic, organic, biological sources of nutrient for improvement and maintenance of soil fertility leading to sustained crop production. Crop responses to organic and biological sources of nutrients for improvement and maintenance of soil fertility leading to sustained crop production: 

Crop responses to organic and biological sources of nutrients are not spectacular as to fertilizers, but the supplementary and complementary use of these resources is known to enhance the use efficiency of applied fertilizer besides improving soil physicochemical properties and preventing emergence of micro – nutrient deficiencies. The major components of the INM are fertilizer, organic manures, green manures, crop residues and Biofertilizers. In cereal- based cropping systems, about 25-50% fertilizer NPK dose of rainy season crops could be curtailed with the use of organics such as FYM, green manure and crop residues. In sugarcane based system, integrated use of sulphitation press- mud, cane trash and Biofertilizers each with inorganic fertilizers and green leaf manuring showed 20-25% economy of fertilizers N applied to sugarcane by improving the use efficiency of N, P and other nutrient. 

Effect of intensive cropping on soil properties: 

Physical properties- 

continuous ground cover due to intensive cropping minimizes soil erosion, runoff losses and crust formation. Relatively higher amount of crop residues due to intensive cropping improves soil structure.

Chemical Properties- 

Organic residues in intensive cropping systems should be recycled to maintain optimum organic carbon in the soil for sustained production. 

Factors for Determining the Fertilizer Schedule are: 

•  Soil supplying power 
•  Total uptake by crops 
•  Residual effect of fertilizers 
•  Nutrients added by legume crops 
•  Crop residues left on the soil.
•  Efficiency of crops in utilizing the soil and applied nutrients.  

 

 1. Soil Supplying Power: 
Growing different crops during different seasons alters the soil nutrient status, estimated by soil analysis at the beginning of the season. The soil supplying power increases with legume in rotation. 

2. Fertilizer application and addition of crop residues. The available nitrogen and potassium in soil after groundnut are higher to initial status of the soil. But after pearl millet, only potassium status in the soil is improved and no changes in P.

3. Nutrient Uptake by Crops: The total amount of nutrients taken by the crops in one sequence gives an indication of the fertilizer requirement of the system. The balance is obtained by subtracting the fertilizer applied to crops that nutrient taken by the crops. 

4. Residual Effect of Fertilizers: The extent of residues left over in the soil depends on the type of fertilizer used. Phosphatic fertilizer and FYM have considerable residue in the soil, which is useful for subsequent crops. The residues left by potassium fertilizers are marginal. 

5. Legume effect: Legumes add nitrogen to the soil in the range of 15 to 20 kg/ha. The amount of nitrogen added depends on the purpose. Green gram grown for grain, contributes 24 and 30 kg N respectively to the succeeding crop. Inclusion of leguminous green manures in the system add 40 kg to 120 kg N/ha. The availability of phosphorous is also increased by incorporation of green manure crops. Potassium availability to subsequent crop is also increased by groundnut crop residues. Crop residues add considerable quantity of nutrients to the soil. Cotton planted in finger millet stubbles benefits by 20 to 30 kg/ha due to decomposition of stubbles. Deep rooted crops- cotton, red gram absorbs nutrients from deeper layers. Leaf fall and decomposing add phosphorus to top layers. Crop residues containing high C: N ratio like stubbles of sorghum, pearl millet temporarily immobile nitrogen. Residue of legume’s crop contains low C: N ratio and they decompose quickly and release nutrients. 

6. Efficiency of crops: Jute is more efficient crop for utilizing of nitrogen followed by summer rice, maize, potato and groundnut in that order. Phosphorus efficient crops, jute > summer rice> Kharif rice> potato > groundnut > maize. Groundnut is more efficient in potassium utilization followed by maize, jute, summer rice, Kharif rice, and potato. Fertilizer recommendation should be based on cropping system e.g. in wheat based cropping system an extra dose of 25% nitrogen is recommended for wheat when it is grown after sorghum, pearl millet. When wheat, after pulse crop needs 20 to 30 kg less nitrogen per hectare. Phosphatic fertilizers are added through green manure crops, not to apply phosphates to succeeding wheat crop. In rice based cropping system consisting of rice- rice in Kharif and rabi and sorghum, maize, finger millet, soybean in summer it is sufficient to apply phosphorus and potassium to summer crops only while nitrogen is applied to all the crops. Thus, following system approach in fertilizer recommendation can save lot of fertilizer. 

e. Water management: 

There is no carry over effect of irrigation as in case of fertilizer. Rice – rice is efficient cropping system for total yield, but it consume large amount of water especially in summer. If water is scare in summer instead of rice, groundnut is used in cropping system. Method of irrigation: The layout should be so planned that most of the crops can be suitable. In ricerice- groundnut system; rice is irrigated by flood method, while groundnut by boarder strips. In cotton – sorghum- finger millet system, cotton, sorghum by furrow method while finger millet checks – basin method is adopted. More remunerative and less water consuming crop rotations have been standardized at different locations of India. Rice- mustard-green gram, rice- potato- green gram rotation were found more water efficient systems at Memari in W.B. Under high level of irrigation in tarai region of U.P, rice-lentil and rice-wheat cropping system were found better. Pre monsoon groundnut-rabi sorghum sequence was highly remunerative with high water use efficiency compared to sugarcane alone in M.S when irrigation water is not limiting. Under limited water supply, however, rice – chickpea- green gram and rice- mustard – green gram are more remunerative with high water use efficiency. 

f. Weed management: 

Weed problems are observed in individual crops, weed shifts and carry over effect of weed control method on the succeeding crops is usual. Weeds are dynamic in nature, generally broad- leaved weeds occur in wheat at later stages and 2, 4 D is applied as post emergence herbicide to control them. In rice- wheat system, canary grass (Phallaris minor) is a menace for wheat crop. Seed of other species decompose and loss viability, but Phalaris minor seed do not loss viability. When sown in rice stubble, wheat is heavily infested with Phalaris minor. In zero till cotton- sorghum-finger millet, weeds are controlled by herbicide. Herbicide applied to the previous crop may be toxic to the succeeding crop. Higher dose of Atrazine applied to sorghum crop affect germination of succeeding pulse crops. Herbicide recommendation should be depends on succeeding crops, ploughing before the planting helps to kill most of the weeds. 

g. Pest and Diseases: 

Pest and diseases infestation more in sequence cropping due to continuous cropping. Carry over effect of insecticides is not observed. 

h. Harvesting: 

In sequences cropping crop can be harvested at physiological maturity stage instead of harvest maturity. The field can be vacated one week earlier. Because of continuous cropping the harvesting time may coincide with heavy rains and special post harvest operations, like artificial drying, treating the crop with common salt etc. are practices to save the produce. 

Important Indices 

Some of the important indices to evaluate the cropping systems are as below: 

I) Land Use Efficiency or Assessesment of Land Use: 

The main objective is to use available resources effectively. Multiple cropping which include both inter and sequential cropping has the main objective of intensification of cropping with the available resources in a given environment. Several indices have been proposed to compare the efficiencies of different multiple cropping system in turns of land use, and these have been reviewed by Menegay et al. 1978. 

1. Multiple Cropping Index or Multiple Cropping Intensity (MCI):

It was proposed by Dalrymple (1971). It is the ratio of total area cropped in a year to the land area available for cultivation and expressed in percentage (sum of area planted to different crops and harvested in a single year divided by total cultivated area times 100). 

MCI=A∑i=1n​ai​​×100
Where:
$���$ is the Multiple Cropping Index expressed as a percentage.
$�$ is the total number of crops grown in a year.
${�}_{�}$ is the area occupied by the ith crop.
$�$ is the total land area available for cultivation.

For example, if a farmer has 100 acres of land and they plant 50 acres of corn, 25 acres of soybeans, and 25 acres of wheat, then the MCI would be:

MCI = ((50 + 25 + 25) / 100) × 100 = 100%. 

It is similar to cropping intensity

MCI=Aa1​+a2​+…+an​​×100Where a1 + a2 + … +an is the gross cropped area and A the net cultivated area

2. Cultivated Land Utilization Index ( CLUI): 

Cultivated land utilization Index (Chuang, 1973) is calculated by summing the products of land area to each crop, multiplied by the actual duration of that crop divided by the total cultivated land times 365 days.

The Cultivated Land Utilization Index (CLUI) can be calculated using the formula:

$����=\frac{{\sum }_{�=1}^{�}{�}_{�}\cdot {�}_{�}}{�\cdot 365}$

where:

• $�$ is the total number of crops,
• ${�}_{�}$ is the area occupied by the ${�}^{�ℎ}$ crop,
• ${�}_{�}$ is the number of days that the ${�}^{�ℎ}$ crop occupied,
• $�$ is the total cultivated land area available for 365 days.

The CLUI is expressed as a percentage and can range from 0% to 100%, where 0% indicates no land utilization and 100% indicates full land utilization. A higher CLUI value indicates a more intensive use of cultivated land.

Here's an example of how to calculate the CLUI:

Suppose a farmer has 100 acres of cultivated land and grows three crops: corn, soybeans, and wheat. The corn crop occupies 50 acres of land for 120 days, the soybean crop occupies 25 acres of land for 90 days, and the wheat crop occupies 25 acres of land for 150 days.

To calculate the CLUI, we would first calculate the product of land area and duration for each crop:

• Corn: 50 acres * 120 days = 6,000 acre-days
• Soybeans: 25 acres * 90 days = 2,250 acre-days
• Wheat: 25 acres * 150 days = 3,750 acre-days

Next, we would sum the product of land area and duration for all three crops:

Total acre-days = 6,000 acre-days + 2,250 acre-days + 3,750 acre-days = 12,000 acre-days

Finally, we would divide the total acre-days by the total cultivated land area (100 acres) and multiply by 365 days and by 100 to express the result as a percentage:

CLUI = (12,000 acre-days / (100 acres * 365 days)) * 100% = 33%

Therefore, the CLUI for this farmer's land use is 33%, indicating a moderate level of land utilization.

CLUI can be expressed as a fraction or percentage. This gives an idea about how the land area has been put into use. If the index is 1 (100%), it shows that the land has been left fallow and more than 1, tells the specification of intercropping and relay cropping. limitation of CLUI is its inability to consider the land temporarily available to the farmer for cultivation.

3. Crop Intensity Index (CII):

Crop intensity index assesses farmers actual land use in area and time relationship for each crop or group of crops compared to the total available land area and time, including land that is temporarily available for cultivation. It is calculated by summing the product of area and duration of each crop divided by the product of farmers total available cultivated land area and time periods plus the sum of the temporarily available land area with the time of these land areas actually put into use (Menegay etal. 1978). The basic concept of CLUI and CII are similar. However, the latter offers more flexibility when combined with appropriate sampling procedure for determining and evaluating vegetable production and cropping pattern data.

The Crop Intensity Index (CII) is calculated using the formula:

$���=\frac{{\sum }_{�=1}^{��}(��\cdot ��)}{{\sum }_{�=1}^{�}(��\cdot ��)}$

Where:

• $��$ is the total number of crops grown by a farmer during the time period $�$.
• $��$ is the area occupied by the $��ℎ$ crop.
• $��$ is the duration occupied by the $��ℎ$ crop.
• $�$ is the time period under study (usually one year).
• $��$ is the total cultivated land area available with the farmer for use during the entire time period $�$.
• $�$ is the total number of fields temporarily available to the farmer for cropping during the time period $�$, with $�=1,2,3,\dots ,�$.
• $��$ is the land area of the $��ℎ$ field.
• $��$ is the time period when $��$ is available.

When, CII = 1 means that area or land resources have been fully utilized and less than 1 indicates under utilization of resources. CII and LER are used to assess the efficient cropping zone.

Cropping intensity/intensity of cropping (CI) indicates the number of times a field is grown with crops in a year. It is calculated by dividing gross cropped area with net area available in the farm, region or country multiplied by 100. 

• $��=\frac{\text{Gross Cropped Area}}{\text{Net Area Available}}\times 100$

$��=\frac{\text{Area Under Kharif Crops}+\text{Area Under Rabi Crops}+\text{Area Under Zaid Crops}}{\text{Net Sown Area}}\times 100$

When long duration crop is grown, crop remains for a longer time in field. This is the drawback of CI. So time is not considered. Thus, when long duration crops like sugarcane and cotton are grown, the cropping intensity will be low.

4. Specific Crop Intensity Index:

It proposed by Menegay et al. 1978. SCII is a derivative of CII and determines the amount of area –time denoted to each crop or group of crops compared to total time available to the farmers.

The formula for SCII is as follows:

$����=\frac{{\sum }_{�=1}^{��}(��\cdot ��)}{{\sum }_{�=1}^{�}(��\cdot ��)}$

Where:

• $��$ is the total number of crops within a specific designation (e.g., vegetable crops, field crops) grown by the farmer during the time period $�$.
• $��$ is the area occupied by the $��ℎ$ crop.
• $��$ is the duration of the $��ℎ$ crop.
• $���$ is the total cultivated land area available for use during $�$.
• $�$ is the total number of fields temporarily available to the farmer for cropping during the time period $�$, with $�=1,2,3,\dots ,�$.
• $��$ is the land area of the $��ℎ$ field.
• $��$ is the time period when $��$ is available.

Model: Area: 1.5 ha; Time: 12 months AoT = 1.5 * 12 = 18 ha month Temporarily available: 1.5 ha 0.5 ha * 4 months = 2.0 0.3 ha * 5 months = 1.5 0.7 ha * 6 months = 4.2 Temporarily available = 7.7

1.5 ha permanent field

Specific Crop Intensity Index Data

Crop	Area (ha)	Duration (months)	Area-Time
Sugarcane	0.75	12	9.000
Rice	0.75	3.5	2.625
Cotton	0.75	5.0	3.750
SD Vegetable	0.75	3	2.250
Total Area-Time			17.625

Temporarily Available

Crop	Area (ha)	Duration (months)	Area-Time
Rice	0.5	3.5	1.75
Vegetable	0.3	4.0	1.20
Cotton	0.7	5.0	3.50
Total Temporarily Available			6.45

KKK

5. Diversity Index (DI): 

It was suggested by Strought (1975) and Wang and Yu (1975). It measures the multiplicity of crops or farm products which are planted in a single year by computing the reciprocal sum of squares of the share of gross revenue received from each individual farm enterprises in a single year. 

C=∑i=1n​(∑j=1n​yj​yi​​)21​

C=∑i=1n​(∑j=1n​Share of Gross Revenue from jth enterpriseShare of Gross Revenue from ith enterprise​)21​

Where: total number of enterprises (crops or farm products) and yi = gross revenue of ith enterprises produced within a year.

Example: In the following which farm is most specialized?

Crops Income (Rs)

Crop	Farm A	Farm B	Farm C
Sugarcane	30000	-	10000
Cotton	10000	20000	20000
Wheat	40000	20000	10000
Jowar	20000	10000	40000
Potato	-	50000	-
Total	100000	100000	80000

Solution

Crops Share of Individual Crop in Different Farms

Crop	Farm A	Square of its Share	Farm B	Square of its Share	Farm C	Square of its Share
Sugarcane	0.3	0.09	-	-	0.125	0.0156
Cotton	0.1	0.01	0.2	0.04	0.250	0.0625
Wheat	0.4	0.16	0.2	0.04	0.125	0.0156
Jowar	0.2	0.04	0.1	0.01	0.500	0.2500
Potato	-	-	0.5	0.25	-	-
Total	1.0	0.30	1.0	0.34	1.000	0.3437

To calculate the Diversity Index (DI) for Farms A, B, and C using the provided crop income data, we'll use the formula:

$�=\frac{1}{{\sum }_{�=1}^{�}{\left(\frac{{�}_{�}}{{\sum }_{�=1}^{�}{�}_{�}}\right)}^2}$

where:

• $�$ is the total number of crops,
• ${�}_{�}$ is the income from the $�$th crop, and
• ${\sum }_{�=1}^{�}{�}_{�}$ is the total income.

For each farm, we'll calculate the Diversity Index using the given crop income data. Here are the calculations:

Farm A:

${�}_{�}=\frac{1}{(0.3\mathrm{/}1{)}^2+(0.1\mathrm{/}1{)}^2+(0.4\mathrm{/}1{)}^2+(0.2\mathrm{/}1{)}^2+(0\mathrm{/}1{)}^2}$

Farm B:

${�}_{�}=\frac{1}{(0\mathrm{/}1{)}^2+(0.2\mathrm{/}1{)}^2+(0.2\mathrm{/}1{)}^2+(0.1\mathrm{/}1{)}^2+(0.5\mathrm{/}1{)}^2}$

Farm C:

${�}_{�}=\frac{1}{(0.125\mathrm{/}1{)}^2+(0.25\mathrm{/}1{)}^2+(0.125\mathrm{/}1{)}^2+(0.5\mathrm{/}1{)}^2+(0\mathrm{/}1{)}^2}$

Now, let's calculate these values:

Farm A:

${�}_{�}=\frac{1}{(0.3{)}^2+(0.1{)}^2+(0.4{)}^2+(0.2{)}^2+(0{)}^2}$

${�}_{�}=\frac{1}{0.09+0.01+0.16+0.04+0}$

${�}_{�}=\frac{1}{0.3}$

${�}_{�}=3.33$

Farm B:

${�}_{�}=\frac{1}{(0{)}^2+(0.2{)}^2+(0.2{)}^2+(0.1{)}^2+(0.5{)}^2}$

${�}_{�}=\frac{1}{0.04+0.04+0.01+0.25}$

${�}_{�}=\frac{1}{0.34}$

${�}_{�}=2.94$

Farm C:

CC​=0.015625+0.0625+0.015625+0.25+01​

${�}_{�}=\frac{1}{0.34375}$

${�}_{�}\approx 2.91$

So, the Diversity Index for Farm C is approximately 2.91.

Now, you have the Diversity Index values for all three farms:

• Farm A: ${�}_{�}\approx 3.33$
• Farm B: ${�}_{�}\approx 2.94$
• Farm C: ${�}_{�}\approx 2.91$

6. Harvest Diversity Index (HDI):

 It is computed using the same equation as the DI expects that the value of each farm 

enterprises is replaced by the value of each harvest.

HDI=∑i=1n​(∑j=1n​Yj​Yi​​)21​

Where:

• $�$ is the total number of crops.
• ${�}_{�}$ is the gross value of the $�$th crop planted and harvested within a year.

To calculate the Harvest Diversity Index for each farm (Farm A, Farm B, and Farm C) using the provided crop income data, substitute the values into the formula:

Farm A:

$��{�}_{�}=\frac{1}{{\left(\frac{30000}{100000}\right)}^2+{\left(\frac{10000}{100000}\right)}^2+{\left(\frac{40000}{100000}\right)}^2+{\left(\frac{20000}{100000}\right)}^2+{\left(\frac{0}{100000}\right)}^2}$

Farm B:

$��{�}_{�}=\frac{1}{{\left(\frac{0}{100000}\right)}^2+{\left(\frac{20000}{100000}\right)}^2+{\left(\frac{20000}{100000}\right)}^2+{\left(\frac{10000}{100000}\right)}^2+{\left(\frac{50000}{100000}\right)}^2}$

Farm C:

$��{�}_{�}=\frac{1}{{\left(\frac{10000}{80000}\right)}^2+{\left(\frac{20000}{80000}\right)}^2+{\left(\frac{10000}{80000}\right)}^2+{\left(\frac{40000}{80000}\right)}^2+{\left(\frac{0}{80000}\right)}^2}$

Now, let's calculate these values:

Farm A:

$��{�}_{�}=\frac{1}{(0.3{)}^2+(0.1{)}^2+(0.4{)}^2+(0.2{)}^2+(0{)}^2}$ $��{�}_{�}\approx \frac{1}{0.30+0.01+0.16+0.04+0}$ $��{�}_{�}\approx \frac{1}{0.51}$ $��{�}_{�}\approx 1.96$

Farm B:

$��{�}_{�}=\frac{1}{(0{)}^2+(0.2{)}^2+(0.2{)}^2+(0.1{)}^2+(0.5{)}^2}$ $��{�}_{�}\approx \frac{1}{0.04+0.04+0.01+0.25}$ $��{�}_{�}\approx \frac{1}{0.34}$ $��{�}_{�}\approx 2.94$

Farm C:

$��{�}_{�}=\frac{1}{(0.125{)}^2+(0.25{)}^2+(0.125{)}^2+(0.5{)}^2+(0{)}^2}$ $��{�}_{�}\approx \frac{1}{0.015625+0.0625+0.015625+0.25}$ $��{�}_{�}\approx \frac{1}{0.34375}$ $��{�}_{�}\approx 2.91$

So, the Harvest Diversity Index for each farm is approximately:

• Farm A: $��{�}_{�}\approx 1.96$
• Farm B: $��{�}_{�}\approx 2.94$
• Farm C: $��{�}_{�}\approx 2.91$

  7. Simultaneous Cropping Index (SCI): 

It is computed by multiplying the Harvest diversity index (HDI) with 10,000 and 

dividing the product by Multiple cropping index (MCI). 

It is given by Strout, 1975.

SCI=MCI(HDI×10,000)​

Where:

• HDI is the Harvest Diversity Index.
• MCI is the Multiple Cropping Index.

Using the previously calculated Harvest Diversity Index values for each farm (Farm A, Farm B, and Farm C), and if you have the Multiple Cropping Index values for each farm, you can substitute these values into the formula to find the Simultaneous Cropping Index for each farm.

As an example, let's use the previously calculated HDI values:

• HDI_A ≈ 1.96
• HDI_B ≈ 2.94
• HDI_C ≈ 2.91

If you have the Multiple Cropping Index values (MCI) for each farm, you can substitute them into the formula. For instance, if MCI_A ≈ x, MCI_B ≈ y, and MCI_C ≈ z, then the SCI values would be:

$��{�}_{�}=\frac{(1.96\times 10,000)}{�}$ $��{�}_{�}=\frac{(2.94\times 10,000)}{�}$ $��{�}_{�}=\frac{(2.91\times 10,000)}{�}$

Please replace x, y, and z with the actual Multiple Cropping Index values for each respective farm. The resulting SCI values will provide an indication of the simultaneous cropping intensity, with higher values suggesting a higher degree of simultaneous cropping.

8. Relative Cropping Intensity Index (RCII): It is again the modification of CII and determines the amount of area and time allotted to one crop or groups of crops relative to area - time actually used in the production of all crops. RCII numerator equal SCII denominator and RCII denominator equal CII numerator.

These indices can be used for classifying farmers viz. when relative vegetable intensity index is 50% ,then the farmer would be considered a vegetable grower. These indices can be used for measuring shifts of various crops among farm of different sizes and determining whether the consistent types of cropping pattern occur within various farm size strata. These indices also held to know how intensively cultivated land, area has been utilized. But none of these indices takes productivity into account and cannot be used for comparing different cropping systems and evaluating their efficiency in utilization of the resources other than the land.

9. Crop Equivalent Yield (CEY): Many types of crops/cultivars are included in a multiple cropping sequences. It is very difficult to compare the economic produce of one crop to another. To cite an example, yield of rice cannot be compared with the yield of grain cereals or pulse crops and so on. In such situations, comparisons can be made based on economic returns (gross or net returns). The yield of protein and carbohydrate equivalent can also be calculated for valid comparison. Efforts have also been made to convert the yields of different crops into equivalent yield of any one crop such as wheat equivalent yield (Lal and Ray, 1976 and Verma and Modgel, 1983). Verma and Modgel, (1983) evolved the equation for calculating wheat equivalent yield (WEY). Crop equivalent yields (CEY): The yields of different intercrops/crops are converted into equivalent yield of any one crop based on price of the produce.

The formula for calculating Crop Equivalent Yield (CEY) is provided in the text as:

$���=��+�1�\times \left(\frac{��}{��1}\right)+�2�\times \left(\frac{��}{��2}\right)+\dots +���\times \left(\frac{��}{���}\right)$

Where:

• $���$ is the Crop Equivalent Yield.
• $��$ is the yield of the main crop.
• $�1�,�2�,\dots ,���$ are the yields of intercrops or other crops that need to be converted to the equivalent of the main crop yield.
• $��,��1,��2,\dots ,���$ are the respective prices of the main crop and the intercrops.

This formula essentially adds up the yield of the main crop ($��$) to the yields of other crops converted into equivalent yield based on their respective prices.

Indices based on Energetic approach

1. Energy Efficiency: $\text{Energy Efficiency}=\frac{\text{Energy Output (MJ/ha)}}{\text{Energy Input (MJ/ha)}}$

2. Net Energy: $\text{Net Energy (MJ/ha)}=\text{Energy Output (MJ/ha)}-\text{Energy Input (MJ/ha)}$

3. Energy Productivity: $\text{Energy Productivity (kg/MJ)}=\frac{\text{Output (grain + byproduct, kg/ha)}}{\text{Energy Input (MJ/ha)}}$

4. Energy Intensity (in Physical Terms): $\text{Energy Intensity (MJ/ha)}=\frac{\text{Energy Output (MJ/ha)}}{\text{Output (grain + byproduct, kg/ha)}}$

5. Energy Intensity (in Economic Terms): $\text{Energy Intensity (MJ/Rs)}=\frac{\text{Energy Output (MJ/ha)}}{\text{Cost of Cultivation (Rs/ha)}}$

Here's a brief explanation of each index:

• Energy Efficiency: Measures how efficiently energy is used in the agricultural system. Higher values indicate greater efficiency.

• Net Energy: Represents the surplus energy available for use after subtracting the energy input from the energy output.

• Energy Productivity: Indicates the amount of output (grain + byproduct) produced per unit of energy input.

• Energy Intensity (Physical Terms): Reflects the energy required to produce a unit of output in physical terms (kg/ha). Lower values suggest more energy-efficient production.

• Energy Intensity (Economic Terms): Relates the energy output to the cost of cultivation. It provides an economic perspective on energy use efficiency.

Economic Viability 

The indicates like CEY, LER, RYT etc. give biological suitability of cropping system to an area. At the same time, cropping system should be economically viable and profitable. Following economic indicates can be used to evaluate profitability of cropping system.

 1. Gross Returns: 

The total monetary returns of the economic produce such as grain, tuber, bulb, fruit, etc. and byproducts viz. straw, fodder, fuel etc. obtained from the crops included in the system are calculated based on the local market prices. The total return is expressed in terms of unit area, usually one hectare. The main draw back in this calculation is that market price of the produce is higher than that actually obtained by the farmer. Generally gross return calculated is somewhat inflated compared to the actual receipt obtained by the farmer. 

2. Net returns or net profit: 

This is worked out by subtracting the total cost of cultivation from the returns. This value gives the actual profit obtained by the farmer. In this type of calculation only the variable costs are considered. Fixed costs such as rent for the land, land revenue, interest on capital etc. are not included. For a realistic estimate, however, fixed costs should also be included. 

3. Return Per Rupee Invested:

 This is also called benefit-cost-ratio or input- output ratio.  

Return Per Rupee Invested (RRI)=Total Cost of CultivationTotal Gross Return​

Where:

• $\text{Total Gross Return}$ is the total income generated from the cropping system.
• $\text{Total Cost of Cultivation}$ is the total cost incurred by the farmer in adopting the cropping system.
• This index provides an estimate of the benefit derived and expenditure incurred by the farmer in adopting a particular cropping system. Anything above the value of 2.0 (meaning that the farmer can get RS.2 as return for every rupee invested) can be considered worthwhile.
• 4. Per Day Return:
• This is called as income per day and can be obtained by dividing the net return by number of cropping period (days).

• The Per Day Return, also referred to as income per day, is calculated by dividing the net return by the number of cropping periods (days). The formula is given as:

  $\text{Per Day Return (PDR)}=\frac{\text{Net Return}}{\text{Number of Cropping Periods (Days)}}$

  Where:

  • $\text{Net Return}$ is the difference between the total gross return and the total cost of cultivation.
  • $\text{Number of Cropping Periods (Days)}$ represents the duration of the cropping system in days.
  • This gives the efficiency of the cropping system in terms of monetary value. If the system is stretched over one year, the denominator can be replaced by 365 days and per day for the whole year can be calculated.
  • No single index is capable of giving good comparison of different cropping systems. So a number of indices are used together to assess the economic viability of the system.